Evaluate the sex-role spillover and feminist theories of sexual harassment.

Evaluate the sex-role spillover and feminist theories of sexual harassment. Also, discuss workplace and societal changes that would reduce sexual harassment by addressing sex-role spillover and/or reducing the gender imbalance of power.

Women’s Lives A PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLORATION

Claire A. Etaugh Bradley University

Judith S. Bridges University of Connecticut at Hartford, Emerita

First published 2013, 2010, 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Published 2016 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY, 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notices: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text on page 490.

ISBN: 9780205255634 (pbk)

Cover Designer: Suzanne Behnke

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Etaugh, Claire. Women’s lives : a psychological exploration / Claire A. Etaugh, Judith S. Bridges. — 3rd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-205-25563-4 ISBN-10: 0-205-25563-9 1. Women—Psychology. 2. Women—North America—Social conditions. I. Bridges, Judith S. II. Title. HQ1206.E883 2012 155.3′33—dc23

2011051405

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction to the Psychology of Women Definitions: Sex and Gender Women and Men: Similar or Different?

Similarities Approach Differences Approach

Feminism History of Women in Psychology

■ GET INVOLVED 1.1: How Do People View Feminism? Women and the American Psychological Association Women’s Contributions

History of the Psychology of Women The Early Years The Recent Years

Studying the Psychology of Women Bias in Psychological Research ■ GET INVOLVED 1.2: Are Samples in Psychological Research Biased? Feminist Research Methods ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 1.1: Doing Cross-Cultural Research on Gender Drawing Conclusions From Multiple Studies ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 1.1: Principles of Feminist Research

Themes in the Text Theme 1: Intersectionality: The Diversity of Women’s Identities and

Experiences Theme 2: Gender Differences in Power ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 1.1: Help Empower Girls and Women Theme 3: Social Construction of Gender

Summary Key Terms What Do You Think? If You Want to Learn More Websites

Cultural Representation of Gender Stereotypes of Females and Males

The Content of Gender Stereotypes ■ GET INVOLVED 2.1: How Do You View Typical Females and Males? The Perceiver’s Ethnicity and Gender Stereotypes The Target’s Characteristics and Gender Stereotypes

Chapter 3

Stereotypes of Girls and Boys Bases for Gender Stereotypes Stereotypes Based on Identity Labels

Sexism: Experiences And Attitudes Experiences With Sexism Changes in Sexist Attitudes Over Time Modern Sexism Ambivalent Sexism ■ GET INVOLVED 2.2: Who Holds Modern Sexist Beliefs? ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 2.1: Benevolent Sexism Is a Global Phenomenon

Representation of Gender in the Media Pattern 1: Underrepresentation of Females ■ GET INVOLVED 2.3: How Are Females and Males Portrayed on Prime- Time Television? Pattern 2: Underrepresentation of Specific Groups of Females ■ GET INVOLVED 2.4: Media Advertisements and the Double Standard of

Aging Pattern 3: Portrayal of Gender-Based Social Roles Pattern 4: Depiction of Female Communion and Male Agency Pattern 5: Emphasis on Female Attractiveness and Sexuality Impact of Gender-Role Media Images ■ LEARN ABOUT THE RESEARCH 2.1: Are Babies Portrayed Stereotypically in Birth Congratulations Cards? ■ WHAT YOU CAN DO 2.1: Increase Girls’ and Women’s Awareness of the Effects of Media ■ GET INVOLVED 2.5: Are Both Women and Men Persons?

Representation of Gender in the English Language Language Practices Based on the Assumption That Male Is Normative Negative Terms for Females Significance of the Differential Treatment of Females and Males in

Language Summary Key Terms What Do You Think? If You Want to Learn More Websites

Gender Self-Concept and Gender Attitudes Gender Self-Concept Prenatal Development

Stages of Prenatal Sex Differentiation Intersexuality ■ EXPLORE OTHER CULTURES 3.1: Multiple Genders